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The epidural space is the space between the outermost covering of the spinal cord (dura mater) and the wall of the spinal canal

Histamine derived from probiotic Lactobacillus reuteri suppresses TNF via modulation of PKA and ERK signaling

On one hand, it functions as an intrinsic tumor-suppressive mechanism, eliminating early-stage tumor cells or those under specific stresses

Upon stimulation by cytokines, stress signals, or pathogens, IBs are degraded, allowing NF-B to translocate into the nucleus, where it binds DNA and regulates the expression of genes involved in inflammation, immunity, and apoptosis

For example, berberine, baicalin, and curcumin can lower serum TMAO by altering gut microbial composition or intervening in metabolic pathways (Liu et al., 2020